Macrophages constitute up to 10% of infected cells in HIV-infected individuals (11, 12). and cellular HIV restriction factors (Tetherin and APOBEC3G/3F) in HIV-infected macrophages. These findings indicated that IECs might act as an important element in GI innate immunity against HIV contamination/replication. vesicular transcytosis (4, 5). Central to the capacity of IECs to maintain barrier and immunoregulatory functions is their ability to act as frontline sensors to their microbial encounters and to integrate commensal bacteria-derived signals into antimicrobial and immunoregulatory responses (6). Studies have shown that this IECs Hoechst 33258 analog express pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that enable them to act as dynamic sensors of the microbial environment and as active participants in directing Hoechst 33258 analog mucosal immune cell responses (7). Among PRRs, toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) in conjunction with TLR7 and TLR9 constitutes an effective system to monitor viral contamination and replication. TLR3 is known to recognize viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), while TLR7 and TLR9 detect single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) and cytosine phosphate guanine DNA, respectively (8). Therefore, expressing functional TLR3, 7 and 9 in IECs play a crucial role in virus-mediated GI innate immune responses (9). Macrophages present in the GI system constitute a major cellular reservoir for HIV due to the abundance of these cells at mucosal sites. GI-resident macrophages symbolize the largest populace of mononuclear phagocytes in the body (10). In the rectum, you will find more than three times as many CD68+ macrophages expressing CCR5 as those in the colon (4). The high expression of CCR5 on rectal macrophages Hoechst 33258 analog suggests that the most distal sections of the gut may be especially vulnerable to HIV contamination. Macrophages constitute up to 10% of infected cells in HIV-infected individuals (11, 12). HIV-Infected macrophages can transfer computer virus with high-multiplicity to CD4+ T cells and reduce the viral sensitivity to antiretroviral therapy and neutralizing antibodies (13, 14). In mucosa infiltrating, macrophages also play a role in systemic HIV spread (5). Macrophage activation contributes to HIV-mediated inflammation, as they can produce and release inflammatory cytokines that induce systemic immune activation, a hall marker of HIV disease progression. Conversely, macrophages play an important role in Rabbit polyclonal to PLAC1 the host defense against HIV contamination. Macrophages are a major producer of type I interferons (IFNs). Our early investigations (15, 16) showed that TLR3 activation of macrophages produced multiple intracellular HIV restriction factors and potently suppressed HIV contamination/replication. However, the ability of macrophages to produce type I IFNs are significantly compromised by HIV contamination. HIV blocks IFN induction in macrophages by inhibiting the function of a key kinase (TBK1) in the IFN signaling pathway through viral accessory proteins (Vpr and Vif) (17). In addition, HIV contamination downregulates the antiviral IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) (ISG15, OAS-1, and IFI44) in main macrophages (18). Exosomes play a key role in intercellular communication and innate immune regulation. A recent study showed that exosomes are created in an endocytic compartment of multi-vesicular body (19). Exosomes are involved in many biological processes such as tissue injury and immune responses by transfer of antigens, antigen presentation (20), and the shuttling of proteins, mRNAs, Hoechst 33258 analog and miRNA between cells (21). As such, it has been postulated that exosomes mediate intercellular communication by delivering functional factors to recipient cells (22). IEC lines also can secrete exosomes bearing accessory molecules that constitute a link between luminal antigens and local immune system (23). Studies have documented that this bystander cells can produce and release the exosomes, which contain multiple antiviral factors that can inhibit viral replication in target cells, including hepatitis B computer virus (24), HCV (25), and HIV (26, 27). Evidently, the interplay between GI-resident macrophages and IECs has a important role in the GI innate immunity against viral infections. Unlike macrophages, IECs are not a host for HIV contamination/replication, and it is unlikely that HIV has a direct and unfavorable impact on functions of IECs. However, Hoechst 33258 analog because IECs in the GI tract have to encounter a number of stimuli and immune cells, including HIV-infected macrophages (28), the activation of these non-immune cells in the GI tract is usually inevitable. Recent studies (19, 29) have shown that IECs.